Documents - Singapore Centre for Chinese Language

1. Research Knowledge Map of the “Chinese Proficiency Grading Standards for International Chinese Language Education”: A Visual Analysis Based on CiteSpace and VOSviewer

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Fri, 19 Dec 2025 16:38:16 +0800

Abstract: The “Chinese Proficiency Grading Standards for International Chinese Language Education (hereinafter referred to as the Standards)” provides the most authoritative reference and guide for the four key aspects of learning, teaching, testing, and assessment of Chinese as a non-first language. It has multiple uses and wide applicability. This paper reviews the current research status of the Standards, explores the phased characteristics and development trends in this field, and aims to inject new perspectives and methodologies into the research on the Standards. Utilising visualisation software such as CiteSpace and VOSviewer, this study conducts a visual analysis of 726 documents from the CNKI database from 1 July 2021 to 31 December 2023. The research findings indicate that the overall research on the Standards is in a positive and steadily growing trend. The research themes primarily focus on the development of teaching resources, Chinese language teaching and education, language services, and the international dissemination of Chinese culture. Future research trends include vocational education exploration, integrated research methods combining theory and practice, and investigation into the driving forces of disciplinary development.

Keywords: “Chinese Proficiency Grading Standards for International Chinese Language Education (the Standards)”, knowledge map, research status, hot topic

1. Preface: Corpora and Their Applications in Chinese Language Teaching and Research

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Fri, 19 Dec 2025 16:38:16 +0800

Abstract: 在人工智能飞速发展的今天，算力、算法和数据成为了支撑和推动人工智能不断演进的三大支柱。其中，语料库作为数据资源的核心，则可称得上是人工智能得以发展的最重要的养分。以ChatGPT为代表的各种大语言模型之所以能够具备自然语言理解和生成能力，正是基于对超大规模语料库的训练和学习。因此，近些年随着人工智能技术的大爆发，语料库也日益受到人们的关注。

DOI: 10.30275/JCLE.202606_24(1).0001

Please Cite: Lin, J. Z. 林进展（2026）前言：语料库及其在华文教学与研究中的应用（Preface: Corpora and their applications in Chinese language teaching and research），《华文学刊》（Journal of Chinese Language Education），24（1），1-4。

2. Construction of Annotation Guidelines for Argumentative Essays in Automated Essay Scoring

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Fri, 19 Dec 2025 16:38:16 +0800

Abstract: In language education, the teaching of composition and the cultivation of writing skills occupy a pivotal position. Implementing automated evaluation of essays not only assists teachers in their instructional work but also significantly enhances students’ learning outcomes. Although automated assessment of argumentative essays in high school has garnered widespread attention, research on Chinese argumentative essays remains relatively insufficient. This is primarily due to the complexity of annotating argumentative information in Chinese. Most existing annotation schemes are overly simplistic and homogeneous, failing to comprehensively and accurately reflect the argumentative structure of essays, and also making it difficult to train precise and reliable automated evaluation systems using annotated corpora. This study focuses on argumentative essays written by middle school students and aims to establish a practical annotation framework suitable for automated evaluation systems. In terms of argument types, a detailed classification of evidence is provided. Regarding argumentative relations, 15 types of relations are categorised from both vertical and horizontal dimensions, enabling the evaluation system to identify and analyse interactions between argumentative elements. The annotated corpus provides robust data support for system development, thereby advancing the field of automated evaluation for Chinese argumentative essays.

Keywords: argumentative essay annotation guidelines, argumentative types, argumentative relations

DOI: 10.30275/JCLE.202606_24(1).0002

Please Cite: Bai, X. P., & Zhou, X. Y. 柏晓鹏、周心怡（2026）自动作文评价中的议论文标注规范的构建（Construction of annotation guidelines for argumentative essays in automated essay scoring），《华文学刊》（Journal of Chinese Language Education），24（1），5-23。

3. A Comparative Study of the Cultural Orientation of Chinese Language Textbooks in Singapore’s Early Years of Independence: Taking Topic Content as the Starting Point

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Fri, 19 Dec 2025 16:38:16 +0800

Abstract: Singapore’s Chinese textbooks encapsulate the essence of Chinese education and are deeply inscribed with the historical imprints of multicultural synthesis. This study takes two sets of 1970s primary school Chinese textbooks as samples: the 1971 Chinese Language (Second Language) for English-medium schools and the 1978 Chinese Language (Mother Tongue) for Chinese-medium schools, employing corpus linguistics to systematically examine the density, distribution, and categorical features of cultural vocabulary through quantitative and qualitative analyses. Findings reveal significant differences attributable to pedagogical positioning: the 1971 textbook exhibits higher cultural vocabulary density, adopting a compensatory strategy that establishes learner cognition through explicit material cultural vocabulary and extensive local cultural references; the 1978 textbook shows lower density, employing an implicit immersion strategy that relies on students’ existing cultural environment, genre expansion, and high recurrence of core vocabulary to achieve cultural transmission. Both textbooks demonstrate higher spiritual culture and lower material culture proportions, yet the Chinese-medium school textbook significantly strengthens national identity content while reducing moral education categories. In terms of localisation, the Englishmedium school textbook features broader distribution, while the Chinese-medium school textbook concentrates on selected core concepts.

Keywords: Chinese language education, Chinese language textbooks, cultural vocabulary, corpus linguistics

DOI: 10.30275/JCLE.202606_24(1).0003

Please Cite: Luo, Q. M., Jiang, J. P., & Wu, F. H. 罗庆铭、蒋静萍、吴福焕（2026）新加坡建国初期华文教材文化取向的对比分析——以话题内容为切入点（A comparative study of the cultural orientation of Chinese language textbooks in Singapore’s early years of independence: Taking topic content as the starting point），《华文学刊》（Journal of Chinese Language Education），24（1），24-46。

2. On the Related Issues of the “Global Chinese Dictionary” through the Use of Chinese Classifiers

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Fri, 19 Dec 2025 16:34:51 +0800

Abstract: Classifiers have diverse expressions in the varieties of global Chinese and is an important part of speech in global Chinese research. Reference books are important academic products of applied Chinese language studies and have significant implications for the construction of the ecosystem of Chinese language. This article, based on the actual usage of Chinese classifiers, observes and evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the most influential Chinese reference book – the Global Chinese Dictionary. It specifically analyses issues such as incomplete word collection, inadequate and inaccurate definitions, and insufficient and inaccurate examples. Finally, countermeasures and suggestions were proposed for dictionary revision and Chinese language teaching.

Keywords: Classifiers, the Global Chinese Dictionary, Chinese language, entry, annotation, examples

4. A Contextual Similarity-Based Approach to Extracting and Clustering Chinese Academic Vocabulary

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Fri, 19 Dec 2025 16:34:51 +0800

Abstract: This study proposes a framework for identifying Chinese academic vocabulary by incorporating Contextual Similarity (CS) as a key metric and applying cluster analysis. First, 5,052 candidate words were screened from academic and general corpora of equal size (each containing 220 million characters), using three indicators - Frequency Ratio (FR), Disciplinary Coverage (DC), and Disciplinary Distribution Uniformity (DDU). These candidates were subsequently clustered into six groups via the K-means algorithm, using CS, FR, and DDU as features. These groups were further summarised into three spectrums that reflect the overlapping relationships among general, academic, and specialised vocabulary. Building on this typology, a three-tier vocabulary system was constructed, consisting of a broad set (5,052 items), a basic set (2,499 items), and a high-frequency set (785 items). This system can provide tiered vocabulary resources for different stages of academic Chinese instruction. The study demonstrates that CS is an effective indicator for extracting academic vocabulary.

Keywords: academic Chinese, academic word list, contextual similarity, cluster analysis, continuity

DOI: 10.30275/JCLE.202606_24(1).0004

Please Cite: Li, A. 李安（2026）基于语境相似度的汉语学术词汇抽取与聚类研究（A contextual similarity-based approach to extracting and clustering Chinese academic vocabulary），《华文学刊》（Journal of Chinese Language Education），24（1），47-67。

5. Discourse Analysis of Classical Chinese Texts from a Systemic Functional Linguistics Perspective: Linguistic Mechanisms and Pedagogical Applications

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Fri, 19 Dec 2025 16:34:51 +0800

Abstract: This study explores the linguistic operating mechanisms of classical Chinese texts and their pedagogical applications. It uses systemic functional linguistics as a theoretical framework. By integrating thematic analysis, the study analyses 32 texts spanning from the Pre-Qin period to the Qing dynasty. These texts cover genres such as poetry, Ci, memoirs, discourses, essays, and memorials. The findings reveal that, at the ideational level, cultural symbols such as “moon”, “wine”, and “lotus” construct the field and convey social meanings through transitivity processes and the voice system. At the interpersonal level, mood and modality systems realise the author’s emotional stance and communicative strategies, while natural imagery and cultural symbols concretise emotions. At the textual level, information structures promote discourse coherence and manifest genre structures such as “introduction-body-conclusion”. Based on these findings, this study proposes a discourse-analysis-oriented teaching model for classical Chinese, including strategies such as semantic mapping, modular imitation, and structural transfer, and designs a literacy assessment system grounded in the three metafunctions. This provides an innovative pathway for classical Chinese instruction that combines theoretical depth with practical value.

Keywords: systemic functional linguistics, classical Chinese texts, discourse analysis, cultural symbols, pedagogical application

DOI: 10.30275/JCLE.202606_24(1).0005

Please Cite: Zhang, Y. Z. 张燕珠（2026）基于系统功能语言学的文言语篇分析：语言运作机制与教学应用研究（Discourse analysis of classical Chinese texts from a systemic functional linguistics perspective: Linguistic mechanisms and pedagogical applications），《华文学刊》（Journal of Chinese Language Education），24（1），68-90。

3. An Analysis of Classroom Language Errors and Training Suggestions for Novice Chinese Language Teachers: A Case Study of Taiwanese Instructors

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Fri, 19 Dec 2025 15:57:59 +0800

Abstract: Due to insufficient teaching experience, novice Chinese language teachers are more likely to exhibit various linguistic deviations during classroom instruction. Focusing on 30 Taiwanese novice Chinese language teachers who have less than two years of teaching experience and less than 900 hours of teaching, this study analyses teachers’ deviations in their classroom instructional language. Three most frequent types of deviations are identified, categorised into pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar, with a total of 3,265 instances. Each major category is further divided into several subcategories based on content. The findings reveal that among the three main categories, pronunciation deviations are the most common, followed by grammar and vocabulary. Among the subcategories, the most frequent deviation is the mispronunciation of final nasal sounds as initial nasal sounds in the pronunciation category, followed by “non-standard grammar” in the grammar category. The findings and training recommendations of this study can serve as a reference for Mandarin teaching institutions when training novice teachers.

Keywords: Taiwan, novice teachers, Mandarin Chinese teachers, classroom instructional language, linguistic deviations, suggestions of training

4. Enhancing Kindergarten Students’ Listening and Speaking Skills through the Integration of Task-Based Language Teaching and Picture Books

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Fri, 19 Dec 2025 15:45:39 +0800

Abstract: Early childhood is a critical period for language development, and picture books play a significant role in fostering young children’s language skills. However, there are certain limitations on traditional picture book teaching methods, such as rigid teaching models, unclear objectives, and lack of emphasis on children’s active participation. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) which emphasises learners’ central role and learning through task completion helps stimulate children’s learning motivation and enhances their autonomous learning skills. This study adopts the picture book “The Very Hungry Caterpillar” as the teaching material and integrate it with TBLT to improve young children’s listening and speaking skills. The teaching activities were conducted in a lower kindergarten class in Shenzhen, China. The participants included 12 students and one teacher. Data collection methods encompassed classroom observations, teaching activity records, and teacher feedback, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of the effectiveness of task-based teaching approaches in enhancing young children’s listening and speaking abilities.

Keywords: Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), picture book instruction, task design, kindergarten students, listening and speaking skills

1. Analysis of the Test Features of Modern Literature Reading Questions in China’s New National College Entrance Examination and Suggestions for the Design of Questions - Taking the National Examination Paper as an Example

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Tue, 24 Jun 2025 15:23:12 +0800

Abstract: The modern literature reading sections in the new National College Entrance Examination are guided by the revised curriculum standards for Chinese language, reflecting the key features of the new National College Entrance Examination and the new curriculum reform. Modern literature reading is the main teaching content for enhancing students’ modern language ability and aesthetic appreciation, and has been a main constituent section of Chinese language reading test in the National College Entrance Examination for many years. The analysis of the characteristics of the modern literature reading sections in the new National College Entrance Examination provides a basis for improving the quality of the test, and offers reliable evidence for enhancing the level of basic Chinese language education. From the perspective of items materials and task features, the proportion of modern literature reading in the Chinese language test of the new National College Entrance Examination in China has remained stable at 16-18 points for the past four years. The focus of the modern literature reading items is on “appreciation and evaluation”, and the emphasis on assessing candidate’s ability to analyse the text is gradually increasing. This article suggests that the test paper of the modern literature reading sections in the Chinese National College Entrance Examination should have a more diverse range of text types (genres) and enhance the exemplarity of the texts. This could guide basic Chinese language education to pay more attention to the learning of different text types (genres), and to improve the reliability and validity of the test.

Keywords: new National College Entrance Examination, modern literature reading, test features

2. A Study on the Changes in the Use of Putonghua and English in Hong Kong under the “Biliteracy and Trilingualism” Language Policy (2019–2024)

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Tue, 24 Jun 2025 15:23:12 +0800

Abstract: Based on language surveys on trilingual usage in Hong Kong conducted in 2019 and 2024, this paper employs statistical analysis methods including independent samples t-tests, one-way ANOVA, and non-parametric independent samples tests to explore the usage patterns and changing trends of Putonghua and English among Cantonese-speaking Hong Kong residents. The research finds that in 2024 the frequency of Putonghua and English usage in workplace settings has increased compared to 2019 and is significantly higher than in non-workplace settings. Key factors influencing language use include educational level, professional rank, and industry characteristics. Specifically, secondary education serves as a dividing point for Mandarin usage, while post-secondary education marks the watershed for English proficiency; higherranking professional groups use Putonghua and English at work significantly more frequently than lower-ranking groups. In addition, language usage varies considerably across different industries, with service industries requiring more Putonghua and technical fields requiring more English. These findings reflect the close relationship between language proficiency and educational level, career development, and industry demands. The paper concludes by suggesting that when implementing the established “biliteracy and trilingualism” language policy, the government could develop more practical language planning objectives based on the actual language usage patterns in Hong Kong society, optimise promotion strategies and support directions, and ensure more effective allocation of educational resources.

Keywords: Hong Kong, “biliteracy and trilingualism” language policy, Cantonese-speaking residents, Putonghua, English

3. An Analysis of Contemporary Value of Chinese Idioms in International Chinese Language Teaching - Taking Shaanxi Idioms as an Example

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Tue, 24 Jun 2025 15:23:12 +0800

Abstract: Idioms are the essence of Chinese language and culture. As the cradle of Chinese civilization, Shaanxi Province boasts a long history and profound cultural connotation, making it an important birthplace of Chinese language and cultural resources. The historical sites and traditional cultural resources in Shaanxi not only provide valuable materials for academic research but also play an important role in understanding the spiritual context and cultural foundation of the Chinese nation. There are a large number of local idioms with diverse themes and rich regional cultural characteristics in Shaanxi. This paper discusses the definition, classification, historical and cultural causes of Shaanxi native idioms and their linguistic and cultural values. Under the background of the new era, we should continuously explore the historical value and practical significance of Shaanxi native idioms to support international Chinese education and inject new vitality into the inheritance and development of Chinese culture.

Keywords: history and culture, local idioms, Shaanxi Province, international Chinese language education, cultural value

4. Lexical Motivation of the Maxipu Dialect in Western Hunan and Its Implications for Teaching Chinese Vocabulary to Non-Native Speakers

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Tue, 24 Jun 2025 15:23:12 +0800

Abstract: The Waxiang dialect, also known as Xianghua, is a highly endangered Chinese dialect primarily found in Yuanling and Luxi Counties of western Hunan Province, China. An outstanding representative of this dialect is the one that is spoken by natives of Maxipu in Yuanling County. The dialect has received widespread attention within the academic community, and yet research on its lexicon remains relatively underdeveloped. This study employs fieldwork to collect linguistic data on-site and analyses the lexical morphology of the dialect as used in Maxipu from the three perspectives of language attributes, rhetorics, and culture features. The findings reveal that the Maxipu version of the Waxiang dialect contains a significant number of image-based words, retains many ancient Chinese terms, and includes a small number of ethnic-cultural terms. The strong lexical motivation in the Maxipu version of the Waxiang dialect provide insights into teaching Chinese vocabulary to non-native speakers, i.e., putting more emphasis on linguistic motivation, cultivating metaphorical thinking skills, and integrating Chinese culture.

Keywords: Maxipu version of the Waxiang dialect, lexical motivation, modes of thinking, cultural connotations, teaching Chinese to non-native speakers

5. Context of Language Application: Textbook Construction and Teaching Representation

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Tue, 24 Jun 2025 15:23:12 +0800

Abstract: In recent years, the theory of contextual learning has gained increasing attention from educational researchers. The construction of language use situation plays a key role in students’ integration of language knowledge, creation of language learning field and development of language proficiency. As the main carrier of knowledge transfer and teaching, teaching materials construct language use situations from three aspects: designing language learning themes, describing language knowledge production process and enhancing cultural identity. According to the relevant prompts of textbooks, teachers should focus on the hierarchy of the content, the intersubjectivity of the activity and the multi-dimensional aspects of evaluation in teaching, so as to promote the effective implementation and complete construction of the context of language application.

Keywords: context of language application, Chinese practical activities, Chinese textbook, Chinese teaching

4. An Exploration of Chinese Word Lists in International Schools: The Development of “General Chinese Word List” and “Academic Word List”

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Tue, 17 Dec 2024 11:29:28 +0800

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to explore the development of Chinese word lists to support primary and secondary Chinese teachers in international schools in organising activities through three aspects of language learning. The word list is divided into two categories: the “general Chinese word list” and “academic word list”, and different developmental methodologies are adopted respectively. The “general Chinese word list” is mainly based on native and non-native Chinese word lists, word frequency lists, and informed by quantitative indicators such as word frequency and coverage rate. Additionally, qualitative dimensions such as the characteristics of Chinese characters and words, and learners’ cognitive patterns, are also taken into account. This mixed approach ultimately results in a total of 11,940 words being identified and included in the “general Chinese word list”. The “academic word list” mainly draws from the compulsory education textbooks approved by the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, and adopts the “individual text driven” paradigm to determine discipline-specific vocabulary by analysing word coverage within the textbooks. This process helps in forming teaching vocabulary for three major subject groups: Chinese language and literature, science, and humanities.

Keywords: international schools, Chinese curriculum in primary and secondary schools, aspects of language learning, general Chinese word list, academic word list

3. A Comparative Study on the Use of Chinese Characters in the Same Texts in Chinese Language Textbooks of Primary Schools in China and Malaysia

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Tue, 17 Dec 2024 11:26:04 +0800

Abstract: This study compares the differences in the use of Chinese characters in the Chinese language textbooks for primary schools, specifically between the Unified Edition of Primary School Chinese Language Textbook used in China and the Chinese language textbooks used in the National-type Chinese primary schools in Malaysia. The aim is to explore the modifications and adaptations made by textbook authors in terms of text content. Initially, a database was used to conduct statistical analysis on the use of Chinese characters in identical texts from both sets of Chinese language textbooks. Subsequently, a comparative analysis was conducted to examine the differences in the use of Chinese characters within the same texts. Finally, a detailed analysis of the types of differences was carried out. The research reveals a significant occurrence of rewriting in Chinese language textbooks for primary schools, indicating that even when the text is the same, different editors often make certain modifications to the words used.

Keywords: China, Malaysia, primary schools, Chinese language textbooks, use of Chinese characters

2. A Comparative Study of Large Language Model and Teachers’ Scoring and Feedback on Chinese Oral Tasks

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Tue, 17 Dec 2024 11:21:33 +0800

Abstract: Open-ended oral tasks pose challenges for automated spoken language assessment. The large language models (LLMs) may offer a potential solution to this problem. This study designed and developed an automated feedback tool, named ArguFeedback1.0, based on the GPT-4 to provide scoring and feedback for Singapore Chinese students’ open-ended oral reports. By comparing the scoring and feedback from the LLM with those from teachers, the study found that the discrepancy in scoring between the LLM and teachers was more significant than between teachers. However, the consistency in grade levels between the LLM and teachers was relatively high, indicating that the LLM could score open-ended oral tasks. Regarding feedback, the LLM can generate effective feedback at the task, process, self-regulation, and affective levels. However, each had its emphasis: the LLM can generate more comprehensive feedback based on text, but its affective feedback was limited to the linguistic level; teachers provided feedback based on experience, focusing more on emotional and humanistic interaction. The study suggested implementing a collaborative human-machine evaluation model for open-ended oral tasks.

Keywords: large language model (LLM), scoring, feedback, Singapore secondary students, Chinese oral

1. Chinese-English Translation as a Tactic of Teaching Chinese as a Second Language

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Tue, 17 Dec 2024 11:08:28 +0800

Abstract: The complex language environment of Singapore provides a rich language resource. However, due to the influence of traditional thinking, Chinese language teaching has not maximised this language resource but keeps the different languages (in our context, English and Chinese) separate so as to prevent language mixing and resultant errors. However, in a multi-lingual society, code-switching is common and cannot be avoided. This essay suggests to make good use of English, which the students are more proficient, to learn Chinese, which they find difficult. This approach is consistent with the recent idea of “translanguaging”. Relevant issues are discussed.

Keywords: translation, code-switching, code-mixing, translanguaging

4. An Empirical Study of Using an Integrative and Effective Literacy Approach to Enhance the Literacy Skills of Chinese as a Second Language Secondary School Students

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Fri, 21 Jun 2024 10:50:12 +0800

Abstract: Combining literacy theory and second language acquisition theory, this study uses the Integrative and Effective Approach to construct an Integrative and Effective Literacy Approach for Chinese as a second language (CSL) students in secondary schools. Through teaching experiments conducted at three classes in a secondary school in Singapore, the study found that the Integrative and Effective Literacy Approach effectively improved the literacy skills of CSL secondary school students at all levels as compared to the traditional Focused Literacy Approach. In addition, this study also summarised the CSL students’ literacy characteristics through classroom observation, interviews and artifact analysis. We could, thereafter, verify that the Integrative and Effective Literacy Approach can increase the students’ interest in learning Chinese characters and Chinese language.

Keywords: Integrative and Effective Literacy Approach, mental lexicon, Singapore secondary school, Chinese as a second language (CSL)

3. Construction of an Online Oral Chinese Teaching Mode for International Students in the Post-Epidemic Era

chewming.loi@sccl.sg (Loi Chew Ming) — Fri, 21 Jun 2024 10:48:49 +0800

Abstract: In recent years, online teaching has emerged as a new favourite of the global education community. International Chinese language education has also begun a new era of “online and offline” education. In this paper, to solve the problems encountered during online oral teaching in practice and provide an effective solution, we draw on the research results of cognitive psychology, the teaching concept of production-oriented approach (POA) and the advantages of offline flipped classroom, give full play to the informatisation and dynamisation of online teaching and construct the online teaching model of “pre-class recording, in-class live broadcast, learning assessment and classroom management”.

Keywords: post-epidemic era, international Chinese language education, online education, flipped classroom, oral instruction